Philippines Literature Essay

The diversity and richness of Philippine literature evolved side by side with the country’s history. Long before the Spaniards and other foreigners landed or set foot on Philippine shores, our forefathers already had their own literature stamped in the history of our race. Our ancient literature shows our customs and traditions in everyday life as traced in our folk stories, old plays and short stories. Our ancestors also had their own alphabet which was different from that brought by the Spaniards. –> LITERATURE: the body of oral and written works, text, books, poetry, etc. these are the several things that concern this subject. we have been exposed to literature ever since we were young. reading, writing, that’s what we do. but is this really the essence of literature? the time i realized that i was going to take up â€Å"Philippine Literature† this semester, i was rather a bit curios about what would be in store for me, for the whole class. our Literature instructor Ms. Dinah Laguna-Mission is very enthusiastic in teaching us. never came a time that i felt sleepy or bored during our lit. subject. she has a lively voice and pronunciation, lively gestures and the witty use of words were the things i looked forward to every time she came. at first, i expect that the subject content and the teaching method was just a repetition of what has been taught to us during high school. but i was wrong, the different genre of literature, different devices and ever famous figures of speech were the ones being taught to us. after all the experiences and new knowledge imparted to me, i realized that Literature is not only about just reading the stories, poems, riddles, etc. but either its understanding them deeply. i thank Ms. Mission for imparting this knowledge imparted to me and the whole class for making this journey bearable and truly enjoyable one. it was beyond doubt an accomplishment for us and so, even if i finish the subject Philippines Literature, the things i  learned, the memories and experience will truly mo no matter what. ^_^

How Does Rossetti Tell the Story in ‘Jessie Cameron’?

How does Rossetti tell the story in ‘Jessie Cameron’? Rossetti uses the title of the poem to help tell the story in ‘Jessie Cameron’. Whilst Jessie’s full name is used as the title of the poem and repeatedly referred to throughout, the name of her lover is not once mentioned. Instead Jessie calls him ‘neighbour’s son’ avoiding any more intimate communication. This suggests that she does not regard him as highly in her life as he may regard her, it also suggests that she doesn’t want to lead him on, but because she makes it so obvious that she has no interest in him it may imply that she is tired of him chasing after her.This use of dialogue by the third person narrator makes the poem seem a lot less biased as we are allowed to see the story from Jessie’s very own perspective. In addition to this, the fact that her surname is drawn upon it suggests that the poem make reflect the permanence, a lot like Jessie herself it will not be changed for the sake of a man. The fact that Jessie chooses not to give in to a man wanting to marry her would have surprised a lot of Victorian readers who did not believe that women should be free to do as they pleased but should accept an offer of marriage when it was given, whether or not they loved the man.As a result of this it could be suggested that the Victorian attitude towards marriage contributed to the confusion of Jessie’s lover who finds her free-will hard to accept. She claims that she had already told him ‘long ago’ that she will not accept his marriage proposal, but he seems to find this difficult to understand. Through the use of more dialogue it seems to suggest that Rossetti wants to make the point that remaining single is not the message she wants to get across: â€Å"For me you’re not the man of men†, rather that women should only marry out of choice if she loves and who is, for her, above all other men.Because di alogue is used so much throughout the poem it could be suggested that the third person narrator feels self-conscious towards the fact that they’re narrative alone would not be sufficient enough in order for the reader to trust what they are saying. As a result, it could be suggested that the reader feels as if the use of dialogue makes the narrator’s narrative seem less reliable and trustworthy which in turn makes us doubt the rest of their narrative which makes us more critical as observers and allows us to understand the potential messages that Rossetti wishes to portray throughout the poem. Home, her home, was close at hand†, the repetition of the word ‘home’ acts as a juxtaposition to the landscape of the beach and sea described throughout the poem. It contrasts that Jessie’s house is sheltered and safe, whereas this stands in opposition to the danger of the sea that she finds herself surrounded by. It emphasises the danger of the sea and in addition to this Rossetti wants to warn women about the danger of becoming trapped in a loveless marriage with someone, making them feel unfilled just like Jessie when she realises that she is near to death.

Sainsbury Plc Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Sainsbury Plc - Essay Example The ratio signifies that in the first year the firm has used around 58 % long term borrowing. However, it was reduced in the next year because the equity portion increased to a higher level. It is evident from the Table 1 that all components of equity portion have increased substantially in the year 2008.Factoring is a method of short term financing whereby a firm sells its trade debts at a discount to a financial institution (Lajoux 2004). It is a continuous arrangement between a financial institution (namely the factor) and a company (namely the client) which sells goods and services to trade customers on credit. As per this arrangement, the factor purchases the client's trade debts including account receivables either with or without recourse to the client, and thus, exercise control over the credit extended to the customers and administers the sales ledger of hi client. The client is immediately paid a sizeable portion of the trade debts taken over and when the trade customers re pay their dues, the factor will make the remaining payment. To put in simple language, a factor is an agent who collects the dues of hi client for a certain fee. Factoring offers a number of benefits to a client. In many cases factoring is found to be a more appropriate mode of financing than banks. Some of the benefits are briefed below: The first and foremost service offered by a factor to its client is that it offers an off balance sheet financing arrangement. By collecting receivables of the clients, factor provides them with a means of finance without bothering about the procedures and troubles of usual financing arrangement. Factoring allows firms to manage the cash flow more efficiently. It does not need to wait for the realization of debtors/receivable to find cash flows to pay off various obligations and cash needs. Therefore, cash position/working capital position can be made sound and stern. The efforts of collection of receivables can be canalized to some other areas and thereby organization's efficiency can be improved. In the absence of factoring arrangement, the risk of non-payment should have been borne by the client itself. Thus, factoring is also a kind of insurance whereby the risk of loss or non payment by debtors will be shared with factor(s) Apart from being a financier, a factor provides the client with the management and maintaining ledger of debtors A number of consultancy services such as assessing he credit worthiness of client's customers, ascertain their track record are also offered by factor. In addition to the direct benefits from a factor, the clients are benefited many other indirect trade benefits such as increased working capital position; liquidity; bargaining power and trustworthiness among customers and public at large. 3. Control of working capital has always been thought to be the most important factor in the short-term financial management of companies. In what sense your

Assessment analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Assessment analysis - Essay Example In the new expectations though, the items titled "Background" and "Statement of the problem" become one content item and the items titled "Purpose" and "Research questions" also become one content item. Also, the current first chapter has an additional content item titled "School Fighting using Deadly Weapons", whose content should exist as part of the first chapter's introduction described in the new expectations, and another item titled "Significance of the study", whose content should exist as part of the content item "Purpose and research questions" (2007, p. 3, 6). At the same time, the current first chapter lacks the item titled "Content of the action research study/project" which should come between the items "Purpose and research questions" and "Definitions of terms" (2007, p. 7-8). Regarding the order of content items in the first chapter, a difference can be seen. In the currently written chapter, the order is as follows: Assumptions, Delimitation, Definitions (of terms), and Summary, while in the new expectations, the order is as follows: Content of the action research study/project, Definitions of terms, and Summary.

To what extent do you agree with the view that HRM is probably the Essay

To what extent do you agree with the view that HRM is probably the most culturally sensitive of all managerial functional areas - Essay Example Furthermore, an organization’s socio-cultural environment affects the adaptation of Human Resource Management Strategies and different cultural contexts pose different challenges. For firms doing business in multicultural environments or generally across cultures parochial views to management of human resources can proof disastrous. This paper looks into the strong interrelationship that exists between Human Resource Management (HRM) and people’s culture. Theories that have been developed to explain the phenomenon are also to be explored. Today’s business environment has taken a turn to be one that is highly globalised meaning that a firm operating in a certain area or country, it does not necessarily expect to have people of that area only or even that country alone (Lawson & Shen 1998). This therefore stipulates that such kind of an organization should expect to have a workforce that is multiethnic or exhibiting variations in cultural backgrounds. This hereby calls for the HR Manager or the management to embrace this fact so as to ensure survival in the increasingly competitive and volatile global business environment. Just but to give an example is the tendency where firms from the developed countries set camp in developing countries and move ahead to adopt standard HRM approaches to their new workforce. This kind of approach tends to undermine the cultural reality of the people and these strategies before long crumble to the management’s amazement. This not withstanding, knowledge of the target mark et’s culture is essential in ensuring a firm’s survival. Culture in this regard is the collective social occurrence that goes on to affect the HRM practices in an organization operating in a particular cultural context. A culture of a people is a phenomenon that cannot be changed due to the fact that it has been with them for a long time and that they identify themselves with it. Culture in this respect gives one their

Contract law assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 1

Contract law assignment - Essay Example On most occasions, this clause tends to be unfair, partial and one-sided as the weaker party in the agreement could not lay claim to damages or extra-contractual compensations when the Contract is somehow broken. There are some legal cases that tend to demonstrate how the weaker parties, in recent years, have at least tried to see that such exclusion clauses are incorporated into the contracts: this report would investigate how such a clause may be included in a typical Irish legal case that involved disagreement over the commercial contract. A legal case study is used to better explain how this phenomenon works out: Analog Devices BV & ors v Zurich Insurance Company & anor. This case study is necessary in order to highlight the seriousness of exclusion clauses in contractual agreements. Which of the parties would feel cheated or be left to bear the huge losses? What is the nature and scope of the clause being excluded? Does it contain an element of insurance coverage or health benefits scheme or pension system? The legal case of Analog Devices BV & ors v Zurich Insurance Company & anor2, decided upon at the Irish Supreme Court, is a typical case to prove how exclusion clause could result in a monumental loss for one of the parties involved. This is factual background to this case as presented by Baillii3: Analog Devices BV & ors had had engaged in the commercial activities of manufacturing, researching and designing of high performance linear mix signal and digital integrated circuits that are used for several signal processing applications. These activities were carried out at Raheen Industrial Estate in County Limerick. It is a known fact that twice a year the usual manufacturing operation is shut down in order to allow the maintenance team to work on the manufacturing plants. These annual maintenance arrangements often occur in the summer

Choose from the list of topics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Choose from the list of topics - Essay Example Just because a behavior is unusual to some, does not make it unusual to others. For example, Catholics can choose to attend their religious services once a week, not at all or every day, depending on the neighborhood in which they leave. While it might seem unusual to some to want to go to church every day, are they hurting anyone? As a Muslim, I am required by my faith to pray five times a day. May I choose to pray more? Of course I may, but if I were to pull out my prayer mat and pray more than five times a day, I may be seen as unusual. That does not, however, mean that I need to be treated for a religious disorder, because I am not harming myself. I can also pray more than five times a day while conducting my daily life without much interruption. Since unusual religious behavior is a rather broad term, I have used rather broad examples above. However, there are religious behaviors that are not only unusual, but harmful to a person physically and mentally. In some religions, there is a consumption of alcohol. If a person felt that by drinking the alcohol that was served until it was gone, they would become closer to their God, then this is a behavior that would not only be considered unusual but also harmful. Alcohol poisoning, drunkenness, and other factors must be taken in play. Another example to consider is a person who feels that they cannot and should not leave their house of worship, for any reason. A person that feels that only within those walls were they safe from death, fear, destruction, sickness, or any other factors. This, clearly, is not only unusual harmful mentally but also impedes living of their daily life, and therefore, the root cause of this behavior must be treated psychologically so that this person may resume their daily life. Temptation is, by its very nature, all around us. Every day we face temptation in varying degrees. Evil is all around us, and tries to tempt us into making the wrong decision; by being strong, we avoid the evil actions. We cannot, however, avoid the evil or blasphemous thoughts, from wishing the person that just cut off our car on the freeway would crash to glancing twice at the person that looks just a little bit better-looking than our significant other. Normal religious behavior is to accept the guilt for these actions and ask for forgiveness, after which we are forgiven and can go on about our daily lives until the next temptation pops up in our face. A person that feels that they must pray for forgiveness, even out in public, for the transgressions that have occurred should not be considered unusual, as they are simply practicing their faith and quietly asking for forgiveness. However, if a person was praying constantly, excessively, refusing to stop and wracked with guilt over the slightest transgression, that would be both harmful to them as well as prohibit them from living their daily life. They should then be treated for a religious disorder. Along those same lines, if a person felt that they were doomed to hell, becoming depressed and despondent because of what they saw as the many numerous transgressions that they had committed, they should be treated for a religious disorder. They have become a danger to themselves, sinking into deep depression and unable to live their daily lives as they are constantly dwelling on these so-called transgressions and what they see as a need for forgiveness. Persons in this state

How to keep your body in a good shape Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

How to keep your body in a good shape - Essay Example However, one should only read that which has substantial depth and those that have mind stimulating qualities. It is also crucial to take time off cognitive activities to improve memory and other cognitive skills. This is concerning taking beaks and recesses from time to time, as they help in building one’s retention and attention span. This way, cognitive skills such as critical and logical thinking remain sharp at all times and boosts quick learning. This works hand in hand with improved task coordination, concentration, and planning. Physically, it is crucial to keep the body in good shape through physical exercises as they increase the flow of blood in the body. The first and easiest way to keep one’s body physically in shape is taking a walk in the yard or walking the dog, if you have one (Templeton). Moreover, Yoga and tai chi are good techniques for keeping the mind in motion and stretching respectively. These physical exercises not only keep the mind and blood flow active, but also ward off certain illnesses, which include Alzheimers and dementia, as well as signs of aging. This occurs due to the relationship between the brain and the cardiovascular system. The use of drugs has profound effects on our bodies concerning maintaining health. As a result, to remain in good shape it is in our best interests to control our ailments such as colds and other personality disorders without the use of drugs or medication. Because of this, the body does not develop dependency on the drugs and medication meaning that one can act and live normally in their absence. In addition, failure to use drugs cuts back on the risk of developing resistance for mainstream medication thus, boosting health. In addition, at times, drugs and medication result in treating symptoms and not the condition that one suffers from resulting in worsening of the condition. Finally, in case of safety, one should avoid

Scope of Communications Methods Essay Example for Free

Scope of Communications Methods Essay 1. Introduction Contracts are in anywhere. Contracts = â€Å"Intention†, â€Å"Agreement† and â€Å"Consideration†. The rule of Contracts will establish when offeree is accepted the offeror’s offer. â€Å"Agreement† is one important term in Contract. â€Å"Agreement† is â€Å"Offer† and â€Å"Acceptance†. Today our topic is The Postal Acceptance Rule which only applies to â€Å"Acceptance†. Hence we focus on â€Å"Acceptance† and assume that if â€Å"Acceptance† is valid, and the contract will valid too. The general rule is formed contract acceptance is actually communicated to the offeror. But The Postal Acceptance Rule is an exception of this rule. Today is the electronic world, communication is not only by postal service also use by electronic transaction. Now we will discuss The Postal Acceptance Rule is its rationale, effect, should it continue to be applied and compare to Electronic Transactions Act (ETA) for determining the timing of acceptance sent by fax and email. Also we will talk about expanding or restricting the types of modern communication methods affected by this rule. 2. History and Background of the Postal Acceptance Rule The Postal Acceptance Rule is the fifth and the last of the relevant sub-rules affecting communication of acceptance. The Rule maybe summarized in this way In 19th Century England, there only 2 method of communication between offeror and offeree deal in person or by mail. The courts had to decide the moment of contract formation by this 2 method. If the negotiating parties are deal in person, they do not face the problem of delay and failure of information transmission. If offeree accept the offer to offeror by mail, there will be a substantial delay in delivery of the letter or even totally lost in the course of post. Adams v Lindsell[1] is the case of delay acceptance and The Postal Acceptance Rule was established by this case. In Case we saw that negotiating parties were not sure the precise time of acceptance had been communicated. This created timing of the acceptance problem and led to the formation of rule. Hence the court determined the acceptance is valid when the letter of acceptance is posted. 3. Case of the Postal Acceptance Rule 3.1 Application case of the Postal Acceptance Rule According to Household Fire Carriage Accident Insurance Co (Ltd) v Grant[2], Grant applied by a letter for shares in the Household Fire and Carriage Accident Insurance Company Ltd. The shares were allotted to him and the letter was sent to him at the address given by him. But Grant never received this letter. Later the company went bankrupt, Grant is asking for the outstanding payments. In this case, Grant is offeror, Household Fire and Carriage Accident Insurance Company Ltd is offeree and the offer is buy the shares. By the Postal Acceptance Rule, the acceptance is valid when the letter of acceptance is posted no matter that the offeror is received it or not. Now the offer is accepted by offeree and offeree posted the acceptance to offeror. Hence Grant is legally bound to pay the outstanding payments. Further to case Dunlop v Higgins[3], is in same situation, Dunlop send to offer to Higgins. In the communication delay time, Dunlop’s good prices have increased. Higgins has posted the letter of acceptance when he received the offer from Dunlop. Dunlop’s won’t to supply the goods to Higgins with old prices. By Postal Acceptance Rule, hence Dunlop must comply with their offer supply the goods to Higgins with old prices. 3.2 Exclusion case of the Postal Acceptance Rule The Postal Acceptance Rule does not apply in every case. Even if the negotiating parties involved consider the postal service is an acceptable means of communication. According to Byrne v. Van Tienhoven[4], the Postal Acceptance Rule cannot accept offeror revocation their posted acceptance. In this case, Van Tienhoven had been sent out the acceptance to Byrne. But Van Tienhoven withdrawal offer and sent out the new one to Byrne before Byrne received the old offer. The court determined Van Tienhoven is not allowing to revocation of posted acceptance. The withdrawal of the offer was not effective until negotiating parties was communicated. Another case Holwell Securities Ltd v Hughes[5], the grantee must comply strictly with the conditions stipulated for exercise by the offeror. If not, the acceptance will not be valid although negotiating parties even they have telephone conversation. The Postal Acceptance Rule cannot apply when there are express terms in the offer specifying that acc eptance must reach the offeror. 4. Electronic Transactions Act ETA[6] was enacted by the Federal Government. And it creates a regulatory regime for using electronic communications transactions. It attempts to remove existing legal impediments that may prevent a person using electronic communications to satisfy legal obligations under Commonwealth law. For the purposes of a law of the Commonwealth, ETA provides criteria for determining the time and place of the dispatch and receipt of an electronic communication. The following requirements imposed under a law of the Commonwealth can be met in electronic form (a) Requirement to give information in writing (b) Requirement to provide a signature (c) Requirement to produce a document (d) Requirement to record information (e) Requirement to retain a document (ELECTRONIC TRANSACTIONS BILL 1999[7]) 5. Conclusion 5.1 Rationale of the Postal Acceptance Rule Contract is formed at the time and place an acceptance is communicated to the offeror. Time of acceptance communicated is very important. Because it will affect the contract’s content. After contract established, every terms added in this contract was invalid. The Postal Acceptance Rule is established for the court to determining attempt to provide some degree of certainty to an offeree accepting an offer by post. In case of Dunlop v Higgins[8], the parties can not sure the precise time of acceptance when using postal service. It had a substantial delay in delivery of the acceptance or even totally lost in the course of post. This created a number of problems and has led to a formulation of the rule. Hence the Postal Acceptance Rule would complementary with Contract Acceptance for ensure the precise time of acceptance. 5.2 Effect of the Postal Acceptance Rule The effect of the Postal Acceptance Rule is that the offerees acceptance will be valid when the moment the acceptance is correctly posted and it is not relevant whether the acceptance is delayed or even totally lost in the course of post. It means if the Postal Acceptance Rule is applied, establish contract have two more problem to be consideration â€Å"Time† and â€Å"Location†. Indeed, the courts have been concerned with locating the place of formation of a contract in the majority of cases which have considered the applicability of the Postal Acceptance Rule. 5.3 The Postal Acceptance Rule in currently applies circumstances Today, the Postal Acceptance Rule in currently applies circumstance is business convenience. It most frequently cited rationalization for retention of the rule. For example, the Company (offeror) sends the promotion letter (offer) to person (offeree) and the person accepts the offer and sends back the acceptance to correctly address. By Postal Acceptance Rule, the contract between company and person was established when the acceptance was posted. If acceptance is complete upon proper posting, this effectively allows the offeree to structure his affairs on the basis. And the binding contract is formed on postage. 5.4 The Postal Acceptance Rule and ETA In instantaneous communication most likely to applied ETA or general rule of â€Å"Acceptance†, For example, offeree accept website acceptance or telephone acceptance even though the parties are not in physical proximity of one another. This is no delayed time between the offer and the acceptance. In non-instantaneous communication most likely to applied the Postal Acceptance Rule. This had delayed time between the offer and the acceptance. Postal Acceptance Rule is handle the argued of moment of contract formation and ETA is imposed under a law of the Commonwealth can be met in electronic form. Both of the rule and are they complementary with each other. If technical delay or human error, there are no universal rule can be applied and it is needed to reference to the intentions of both parties. 5.5 Rules used for acceptance sent by Fax and Email We know that there are two types of communication, instantaneous and non-instantaneous. Instantaneous communication is no delay time between sent and received and non-instantaneous communication had delay time between sent and received. Fax is the instantaneous communication. This is because Fax transmits is same as telephone transmits. It is direct transmission from fax machines to other fax machines, transmission between sent and received is in same time. Hence Fax is instantaneous communication it most likely to applied ETA or general rules of â€Å"Acceptance†. How about of the Email? Some articles expressed that Email is instantaneous communication. Because the legislation deals a default rule for the time that Email (electronic communications) is sent and when it is received. But this is wrong, in fact according to Email transmits, it along the internet may involve travelling across the world with correctly Email address. That’s mean after click â€Å"SEND† button the transmission may be immediacy, may be takes a moment, sometimes used a few minutes or even over an hours that’s base on the network connection until the recipient received the message. The e-mail transmission through the network depends completely on the viability of the ISP[9] for the offeree and the offeror. Now we have millions of internet user, delays in e-mail communication is very normal situation. The communication may have delay and they are not sent and when it is received. We can study the case Chwee Kin Keong v Digilandmall.com Pte Ltd[10] in Singapore. Hence Email is non-instantaneous communication it most likely to applied the Postal Acceptance Rule, but Email also under the ETA. 5.6 Keeping Postal Acceptance Rule in part of Australian contract law? It must be â€Å"YES†, the Postal Acceptance Rule should continue to be applied. In application level, we know that the general acceptance principle depends on whether the method of communication is instantaneous or â€Å"non-instantaneous†. From the above discussion, Email could be considered as a non-instantaneous communication. Analyze the moment of contract formation is an essential point for the court to apply the Postal Rule of Acceptance in the context for e-mail transmission. As the method of communication is improving, some problem may be created. If the problem is relevant the moment of contract formation and the communication is defend as a non-instantaneous communication. The Postal Acceptance Rule is most likely applied on it, and the concept of the rule is not outdated. Another basic reason for keeping Postal Acceptance Rule is the electronic communication could not fully replaced the postal service. Maybe in laggard or destitute country, the postal service is the only way for the communication. In content level, the Postal Acceptance Rule was not allowed the offeror withdrawal the offer when offeror posted the offer to offeree (Byrne v. Van Tienhoven[11]). If Postal Acceptance Rule was abolished, the offeror choses he can always make the formation of the contract, until he is receive any reply. If the offeror doesn’t receive any reply from the offeree he can always make inquiries to the offeree about the offer. If the contract is not concluded there would be considerable delay in transactions and the acceptor would never be safe until he has received notice that his letter of acceptance had reached its destination[12]. In the Australian legal system which want to make the fair rule to negotiating parties. In case if Postal Acceptance Rule was abolished, the offeree was in unsafe situation. Because there are unfair to the offeree and offeree don’t get any protect by the Australian legal system. Hence the Postal Acceptance Rule should keeping in part of the Australian contract law. BIBLIOGRAPHY: 1. Peter Gillies, ‘Business Law 12th Edition’, 2. David Parker and Gerald Box, Business Law for Business Students 2008 3. Kathryn O’Shea and Kylie Skeahan (1997) Acceptance of offer by E-Mail How Far Should the Postal Acceptance Rule Extend 4. Australasian Legal Information Institute http://www.austlii.edu.au/ 5. Dave Stott, Australian Law Students Association Should The Postal Acceptance Rule be Applied to E-Mail? 6. Sharon Christensen, Vol 1 No 1 QUTLJJ Formation of Contracts by Email – Is it Just the Same as the Post? 7. Electronic Transactions Act 8. Holwell Securities Ltd v Hughes [1974] 1 WLR 155 9. Exclusion of the postal acceptance rule http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/QUTLawJl/1997/18.pdf 10. Exclusion of Postal Acceptance Rule 11. Chwee Kin Keong v Digilandmall.com Pte Ltd ([2005]SGCA 2) 12. Adams v Lindsell (1818) 106 ER 250. 13. Byrne v Van Tienhoven (1880) LR 5 CPD 344 14. Dunlop v Higgins [(1848) 1 H.L.C. 381] 15. Holwell Securities Ltd v Hughes [1974] 1 WLR 155 16. 17. [pic] [1] Adams v Lindsell (1818) 106 ER 250. [2] Household Fire Carriage Accident Insurance Co (Ltd) v Grant (1879) LR ExD 216 [3] Dunlop v Higgins [(1848) 1 H.L.C. 381] [4] Byrne v. Van Tienhoven, [1880] 5 CPD 344 [5] Holwell Securities Ltd v Hughes [1974] 1 WLR 155 [6] Electronic Transactions Act [7] http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/C2004B00505/Revised%20Explanatory%20Memorandum/Text [8] Dunlop v Higgins [(1848) 1 H.L.C. 381] [9] Internet Service Provider [10] Chwee Kin Keong v Digilandmall.com Pte Ltd ([2005]SGCA 2) [11] Byrne v. Van Tienhoven, [1880] 5 CPD 344 [12] Kathryn O’Shea and Kylie Skeahan (1997) Acceptance of offer by E-Mail How Far Should the Postal Acceptance Rule Extend

Reasons For Legalising Euthanasia Sociology Essay

Reasons For Legalising Euthanasia Sociology Essay What is euthanasia? There are a lot of definitions of euthanasia which have the similar meanings with each other, and here are some definitions from different say. From Medicine Net.com The word euthanasia comes straight out of the Greek eu, goodly or well + thanatos, death = the good death and for 18th-century writers in England that was what euthanasia meant, a good death, a welcome way to depart quietly and well from life. (Medical Net.com, Medical dictionary) From Answer.com The act or practice of ending the life of an individual suffering from a terminal illness or an incurable condition, as by lethal injection or the suspension of extraordinary medical treatment. (Answer.com, the worlds leading QA site) From wiseGEEK Euthanasia is the process of painlessly helping a terminally ill person to die. (wiseGEEK) Legalization of euthanasia The legalization of euthanasia is not common, it still cause intense debate among people. Up to now, there are two countries accept the legalization of euthanasia, Netherland and Belgium. Netherland is the first country that legalizes euthanasia, the House of Representatives in Netherland approved the proposed law of euthanasia on the 28th of November in 2000 and, finally the Senate in Netherland allowed the legalization of euthanasia on the 10th April in 2001. Belgium is the second country that approves the legalization of euthanasia. After two days debate, the lower house of the Belgian parliament approved the bill by 86 votes in favors, 51 against and with 10 abstentions. The Belgian parliament finally passed law partially legalizing euthanasia in 2002. Though these two countries allow euthanasia and mercy killing that carry out by doctors, they set up strict rules to govern it. For examples, the person who request to euthanize must be conscious and he or she must has suffered from the prolonged physical and mental pains of terminal illness, more than one medical opinion are needed to approve each case of euthanasia. Moreover, actually there are some places which are allow people to commit some kinds of euthanasia. For instance, physician-assisted suicide is allowed in Swiss, doctor can remove patients respirator in some special cases and, terminal patients are allowed to decide continue the treatment or not by themselves in Denmark. On the other hand, there are still lots of countries fight against the legalization of euthanasia, including Italy, Vatican, Russia, German and Britain..etc. Reason for euthanasia There are a number of reasons for euthanasia, including the pains that the patients suffered, the dead life that patients had, the family suffers and the economic burden to the society. More detailed explanations will carry out in the following paragraphs: The prolonged pain that the patients suffered People always say life is a divine gift to everyone, gifts should be enjoyable, and people should live enjoyably. However, for those who suffer from terminal illness, they have no hopes and they suffered from the great physical and metal pains in every moment, they are not enjoying their life, but being torturing. For those terminal illness patients, living can be a torture and euthanasia is an ideal way to die, people can die without any pains. So why dont people choose to die peacefully rather than live with pains? Prolonged death is not life Comatose patient or vegetable refer to person who is physically alive but mentally inactive. They cant move, cant do anything but just in coma condition all the time, it is not a life real indeed. Though they might recover, the probability is very small. Without own thinking and the ability to move, that means they are not really living. The pain and pressure that the patients family suffered Although terminal patients and vegetable are always being take care by the nurse and doctors and live in the hospital, it doesnt mean that their family members no need to take care of them. Since the staffs are not only take care of one terminal patient, so they can provide limited care only. For example, terminal patients and vegetable needs peoples care, it is important to have somebody talk to them even they cant response, thats what their family have to do. It is not difficult to imagine how tired they are keeping go to the hospital everyday and sometimes might be have to go there several times per day. So, euthanasia is not only a way to escape for the patients, but their family as well. Economic burden to the society As the report mentioned above, prolonged death is not life, so it is necessary for people to consider continue spending money on those patients or not. Terminal patients and comatose have a very low chance to recover, however, the medical expenses for maintaining their life is quite heavy. Generally, the expense for a comatose is $8000 $10000 per month, it seems that the cost is not so high. But, there are number of patients, lets take America as an example, the medical expenses spent on those patients cost 10 70 billions US dollars each year because of the large amount of patients. Although it is merciless to include the economic factor in the reasons of euthanasia, we are living in a century which is utilitarianism always comes first, we have to accept this ruthless fact. Arguments against the legalization of euthanasia After listing the reasons for euthanasia, it comes to another controversial issue which is related to euthanasia, the legalization of euthanasia. Up to now, there are only two countries legalize euthanasia, it reflects that the legalization of euthanasia still need more discussion and the report is going to point out the arguments against this issue. There are three arguments against the legalization of euthanasia. Euthanasia can be considered as murder Law functions as a tool that maintain the peace of the society and delimit the truth and falsehood in the society. Therefore, when considering the legalization of euthanasia, we must ensure it is not conflict with the existing law. Murder means someone kills the others, it is illegal in all countries. Euthanasia ends peoples life, actually it is a kind of murder too, and the legalization of euthanasia indicates the legalization of murder as well. To adhere the principles of law, euthanasia should not be legalized. Also, the concept of euthanasia is conflict with the ethics and violates the humanism, it is a uncivilized behavior that causes the wrong values in the society. Life must be protected and promoted in all circumferences life is a divine gift that no one has the right to take it away, except god. Life is precious to everyone, thats why we have being taught that killing people is definitely wrong when we were children and we also set up law to punish murderer. All these things are used to protect our life. Furthermore, a positive outlook of life should be promoted instead of treat the end of life as a way to escape. This positive attitude is what an improving society should have, look forward to the future and never give up in any situations. A favor is provided for lawless person The legalization of euthanasia allows people to end their life, at the same time, it allows people to end the others life too. As a result, there are lawless person can make use of this law to achieve their evil wants. For instance, people who dont want to provide for their aged parents may make use of euthanasia to end their parents life and, euthanasia can be a tool that help the lawless person to get the inheritance earlier by ending their parents life. Data from survey A survey on euthanasia has carried out, there are totally 30 people who come have different nationalities, religions, genders and ages do the survey. The survey consists of 7 questions, which focus on different aspects of euthanasia and some statistics will show below. To ensure all interviewees know what euthanasia is, the above question is the first question of the survey and the pie chart shows the result. According to the statistics, 70% of the interviewees know the term euthanasia, 27% of them are not quite sure what euthanasia is and only 3% of them dont know what euthanasia is. This result reflects the issue of euthanasia is quite popular among people, but there are still some people not sure what euthanasia is. During the survey, we found that the reason of most people chose the answer NOT SURE is they dont know the difference between euthanasia and suicide. It can be concluded that most people know the term euthanasia but there is still misconstruction about euthanasia existing in the society. According to the statistics, the total number of people who think euthanasia is in conflict with moral values is 13, slightly higher than the number of people who answered NO. The distribution of the statistics is that the people in the age group of 18-29 are tending to answer NO while people in the age group of 30-40 and 41 or above are more likely to choose YES. It indicates the different thinking and values between the younger people and middle -agers and old people. In the youths values, they mostly think there is no conflict between euthanasia and their moral values, but in middle-agers and old peoples eyes, it is an irreconcilable conflict. Another remarkable point is people aged above 30 are generally having their stand on this question, only 1 of them has no stand on it. Comparing the number of the other age groups, the younger age groups have a total number of 4 people choosing the answer NOT SURE, it is obvious that the younger are not having definite view. This phenomenon occurs can be explained by the age of people, it is a comprehensive fact since people mental is mature with their age. The general trend is people are not agreeing on the legalization of euthanasia. Referring to the statistics, 9 people agree legalizing euthanasia, 14 people disagree the legalization of euthanasia and the rest of them have no stand. Among five groups of people from different countries, Chineses attitude on the legalization of euthanasia is the most clear and definite. There are 16 Chinese interviewees in total, 4 of them agree the legalization of euthanasia and 10 of them do not, it shows that more than 50% of them oppose the legalization of euthanasia, it is a definite statistics compare with the result of the other countries. On the contrary, Australian is more likely to agree the legalization of euthanasia, there are 4 people out of 8 people in Australia agree to legalize euthanasia, while the other 50% of the people are disagree or have no stand. Apart from the above two nations, the other nations are having an indefinite attitude, people from Japan, Korea and France are tend to choose NOT SURE. Referring to the result, there are 2 Koreans, a Japanese and a French chose NOT SURE. It reflects these three nations dont have an identical attitude on this issue. In this question, more than one answer can be chose, so the above result has more than 30 votes in total. According to the result, there are 28 interviewees think that the family members of a person should be authorized to decide the person commit euthanasia or not, nearly all of the interviewees chose this option. The number of people chose the option, himself or herself, is slightly fewer than the option, family members, just 3 more people have chosen family members than himself or herself. It reflects people concern on the patients family members decision the most, even more than the patients himself or herself. Doctor is the choice that falls behind the option, himself or herself, there are 14 people chose this option. It reflects that though doctors are providing professional medical advice, most people dont consider them to be the one who approve the commitment of euthanasia. It can be explained by the identity of doctors, since the doctor is just the person who cures the patients, the relationship between the family members and the patient is much closer than doctors and the patients. The least popular choice is his or her friends, there are only 2 people chose this choice. It is not difficult to understand this result, it is because friends are outsider in this case. Conclusion and Recommendation In this report, a lot of researches and a survey about euthanasia have been carried out. After researching into the issue of euthanasia, euthanasia can be concluded as ending a life without pains and there are both pros and cons on the legalization of euthanasia. Referring to the result of the survey, there are several discoveries after the analysis. To summarize, most people know the term euthanasia but there is still misconstruction about euthanasia existing in the society, older people are more likely to think the euthanasia is in conflict with their moral values while the younger do not, the general trend is people are not agreeing on the legalization of euthanasia and family members of a person is the one that people think they should be authorized to decide the person commit euthanasia or not. Base on the above conclusion and findings from report, a number of recommendations have raised. Firstly, I recommend people spend more time on knowing the true meaning of euthanasia since it is a popular issue in the society, but there are still some people misunderstand the term euthanasia. At the same time, it is the governments responsibility to ensure their citizens have enough understanding on the public issues, so I suggest the government try to use different ways to teach people a correct meaning of euthanasia. The last thing I would like to suggest is the government has to consider twice before legalizing euthanasia because it is an issue that affect a lot of aspects, like ethics and religion. If the government legalizes euthanasia thoughtlessly, the society may in a state of chaos.

English in Pakistan

English in Pakistan THE AUDIENCE OF THE ANALYSIS The audience of this analysis is all primary school as the writing will focus on the existing teaching techniques at this level and will concentrate on the anomalies in this methodology. The revised 2006 English Teaching curriculum is completely based on the ongoing teaching technique. The revised curriculum 2006 for the first time introduced English at the level of grade 1 which used to be introduced to students at 6 grade before 2006. This is a milestone in the history of Pakistan that students of government run schools could start learning English from the very first year of school. The government new education policy unveiled on 12 March 2009 with a hope to reduce the illiteracy to a great level. The policy will be implemented at the expiry of National Education Policy 2008-2010 next year. But revised English curriculum and the new national policy does not draw attention to the mammoth problem of obsolete teaching techniques especially English curriculum at all levels. To overcom e these issues we will deeply look into the Communicative Language Teaching techniques which will resolve the long standing issues of the country and put the teaching techniques on the right track. POLICY ANALYSIS TIME AND PROCESS SPENT ON THE POLICY DEVELOPMENT It is arduous to forecast the exact time the Ministry of Education (MoE) undertook the task of coming up with a revised curriculum for English in 2006. As the national education policy 1998-2010 introduced in 1998 was heavily criticised for being inadequate to cater the needs of the country in twenty first century and very soon MoE realised the gravity of the mistakes when the new education policy was heading towards complete collapse. To save its face the MoE came up with a new idea to revise some of the most defective policies. INTENDED AUDIENCE The analysis is going to focus on the problems of teachers, students and the curriculum. The analysis is restricted to the primary system of education in the biggest province of Punjab. FUNCTION AND PURPOSE OF THE ANALSYIS The main function and purpose of the policy analysis is to focus on the drawbacks in the teaching methodology and the proposed curriculum introduced at the primary level. How these problems are adversely affecting the people involved with education sector, especially the students who are at the receiving end. TYPE OF KNOWLEDGE The analysis is both non-interpretative and interpretative. NATURE OF POLICY The analysis is non-perspective as it will have a wide approach towards the existing policy. â€Å"A non-perspective policy text†¦ is construed so that the reader is allowed a great deal of latitude as to how they interpret its message(s)† (Scott, 2000, pp 18). Scott adds â€Å"if the text is non-perspective, the reader is not asked to behave or think in a certain way but is offered a number of possibilities which they can then choose from† (ibid, pp 18-19). The writing will be based on the views, analysis and research of different educationists, analysts and opinion. It will focus on both the traditionalist approach and CLT approach and how it works out for a country like Pakistan. The topic is wide focus on the English teaching techniques at primary level in Pakistan and how this is effecting the students in term of their progress. The CLT will be dealt with in depth to address the issue the English teaching as a second/foreign language. While talking about the new approach we will keep our focus on Pakistan’s primary level language teaching techniques. One figure is used but graphics and statistics have not been employed as the topic under discussion is of generic nature and involves opinion and research of different researchers and educationists. PAKISTAN AND ENGLISH Worldwide the significance of English as a language of communication cannot be overlooked. As communication is the most fundamental aspect of human life (Thompson 2003:1) and a language works as a key mean of communication for humans (Clark et. al. 1994:1). The communication process starts first at communal level but this circle widens up when people from different communities and societies interacts with one another. As the world has become a global village the English rightly fulfils the need for a common lingua franca to bridge the widening gap between world communities. Nowadays English is widely considered as a global language and according to Brutt-Griffler (mentioned in Mackay 2002:12) due to its some of the most appealing features it holds this position. The popularity of English these days could be judged from the fact more than 85 percent international organisations worldwide employ English as the main language, for instance in Asia and the Pacific ninety percent of the org anisations officially use English (MacKay 2002:17). The national language of Pakistan is Urdu but English has been the official language for communication over the last six decade since its independence. The Kachru’s concentric model describes Pakistan’ position in a very well manner as it falls in the outer-circle of the model. This circle includes the earlier period of the extension of English in non-native countries where it has become a part of a countrys chief institutions, and plays an important second language role in a multilingual setting and includes 50 other territories. Fig. 1 The University Grants Commission of Pakistan (1982) in a â€Å"Report on the Teaching of Language† deemed the English as the language of knowledge, technology, and international communication, as an important second language’. Furthermore the report adds regarding the future of English in Pakistan that it would be employed in the near future as the language of technology and for international communication and soon English is going to hold the position of global lingua franca and ignoring language would be detrimental for any country especially for a country like Pakistan which is already having advantages in the form of past knowledge of English (UGC 1982:14). This statement reveals the significance of English for a third world state like Pakistan and recently the government decided to introduce English at all Government Schools from the year one (MoE 2007) and shun the existing policy of teaching English at grade 6 (i.e. sixth year of schooling). EDUCATIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE COUNTRY First of all it is vital to comprehend the structure of education system in Pakistan in order to focus in better manner on the topic under discussion. For a long time English has been an integral component of the syllabus. The education in Pakistan can be dissected into five main levels but we will discuss only two main categories at school level: Primary Level: The primary level comprises of 1-5 grades and students of age 3-11. At this level the medium of instructions at government schools is Urdu while schools under provincial governments use local/regional languages as the medium. As mentioned above now the government is planning to introduce English at this level both at federal and provincial schools. Secondary Level: This level can be further segmented into two main stages: Middle school, which includes pupil of grade 6-8, and Higher school consisting of grade 9-10 students. The age group for this level varies between 11-18 years and is of great significance because at this stage of education the syllabus commences towards specialisation in a specific field or disciple and decides towards the future of a student. For instance at this stage a student decides whether he intends to pursue science subjects or arts subjects, the two most common choices available for students at higher school (9-10 grades). Ironically, the medium of instructions at this stage depends on the kind of institution, for example, in private schools the ‘O Levels’ system or ‘Senior Cambridge’ system of education are in vogue and therefore English is the primary source of instruction. While in government schools, also called the ‘Urdu Medium Schools’, the local curriculum of English is taught as the name suggests the medium of instruction is in Urdu. ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING Since independence of Pakistan in 1947 all successive governments have been aiming at introducing new and robust education policy to ameliorate the obsolete education system left by the British Empire. But most of these efforts have gone down the drain due to insincere, apathetic and sloppy policies of the government and one can judge the failure of these policies from the fact that in the last 62 years Pakistan introduced 11 education policies (1947, 1951, 1959, 1966, 1969, 1970, 1972, 1979, 1992, 1998, 2010) without any beneficial outcome. As educational analysts rightly infer that the number of education policies does not mean we are over-concerned about poor education standard or under-performance of these policies but it means precisely the opposite. For instance in 1998 the education policy 1998-2010 was introduced but within a couple of years of its launch it led to the complete collapse of the education system and to shroud this downfall the Ministry of Education rushed to in troduce a new revised curriculum in 2006 (MoE 2007 available at http://www.moe.gov.pk/). This reveals the pathetic situation of crumbling educational system of the country. Now the government has announced initial National Education Policy 2009 which will be enforced from 2010. We will focus on the obsolete English teaching methodology in practice and unfortunately like in the past the Ministry of Education’s revised curriculum for ‘English Language 2006’ totally avoids this issue (ibid). Curriculum planning can be seen as the systematic attempt by educationalists and teachers to specify and study planned intervention into the educational enterprise (Nunan 1988: 1). But in Pakistan the government has never thought on this line and the existing situation has gone from bad to worse where English language teaching is considered as being dissatisfactory, non-conducive and counter-productive for learning the language in Pakistan (Warsi 2004). The educationists summari se the English language teaching techniques in vogue at different levels of education in the following context: Teaching methodology is scant of deep approaches to learning or in other words lack of connection to personal, experience of the learner, conceptualisation and integration. For language learning it has the implication of memorizing facts about language and lack of contextualized, authentic use of the target language with a focus on meaning. Curriculum based teaching and learning. An emphasis on rote memorisation. More focus and emphasis on transfer and assessment of factual knowledge rather than assessment of critical thinking and analytical skills (Rehmani 2003:3) The above features indicate the traditional approach to teaching of English language. Nunan further elaborates the main elements of this traditionalist approach: Area Model View of learning Transmission of knowledge Power relation Emphasis on teacher’s authority Teacher’s role Providing frontal instruction Learner’s role Passive / individual work View of knowledge Presented as ‘certain’ View of curriculum Static; predefined content and product Learning experience Knowledge of facts, concepts skills; focus on content and product Control of process Teacher structured learning Motivation Extrinsic Evaluation Product oriented: achievement testing; criterion referencing (Nunan 1999:7) Nunan correctly draws the traditional methodology in English teaching in the country where the traditionalists view and focus on the language as a structured system of grammatical patterns, with a higher focus of such techniques on formal and bookish language. Such approach aims to have pupils producing formally correct sentences and in terms of skills, an emphasis on reading and writing (Nunan 1988:26-27). Globally there has been a greater tendency towards research and development in the field of language teaching techniques and approaches but haplessly Pakistan education system is oblivious of such developments in the world. Warsi laments â€Å"the obsolete [grammar] translation method is still being adopted by most language programmes† (Warsi 2004) and the facets of language teaching programmes are irrelevant to the most fundamental requirements of students (ibid). Since 1960s, there is an ambition to formulate language teaching more responsive to the needs of the student a nd this has been a consistent feature of both writing and practical experimentation in language teaching (Tudor 1996:66). Tudor further advocates such approach and opines that it permits students to ‘play a fuller, more active and participatory role in their language study’ (ibid). And it develops language teaching more effective as the teaching process is highly helpful to the needs, characteristics and expectations of learners. Tudor insists that immense need for different kind of language skills within a swiftly evolving social and economic context made it indispensable for â€Å"a language teaching profession to develop appropriate tools for identifying learner’s communicative needs and for translating them into coherent course structures† (Tudor 1996:8). Tudor’s argument truly reflects the need of development skills in the education sector of Pakistan to foster the needs of a strong and well-educated society and a robust education system for th e present and the future. COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING (CLT) Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) emerged in 60s as an approach towards the teaching of language which lay emphasis on interaction as a source of learning a foreign language. The approach in CLT is totally different from the traditionalist approach as it is a wider approach which is based on a list of common principles and characteristics. As CLT can be well defined by Nunan’s five points: An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language. The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation. The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also on the Learning Management process. An enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning. An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities outside the classroom. (Nunan 1991, 279) The main aim of CLT is to make a student capable of achieving communicative competence in the foreign language so that he can utilize the language for doing the similar tasks which it undertakes in day to day life. In other words its application should be reflective of the circumstances or events surrounding and should not be based on imaginative or unrealistic ideas. Until 1970s teaching and learning system was deemed as system of rules and the learners were assumed to internalize such rules (Nunan 1999:9). The approach was contradictory to CLT because it focus on set rules of teaching and a set path which could never be breached or in other words simply the teaching of fundamental like grammar of a language while there is no emphasis on its application and usage in the language. As Richard contends that language ability cannot be restricted to just grammar and it involves more than merely memorizing grammar and the grammar and other features of a language should be applied properly and purposefully for different communicative purpose and therefore the focus of learning and teaching need to be directed towards the use of language and not just the knowledge of language (Richards 2007:9). ENGLISH CURRICULUM AND TEACHING TECHNIQUES IN PAKISTAN In third world countries like Pakistan, the teaching curriculum, especially English curriculum, has been the centre of criticism over the last couple of decades. The English curriculum is obsolete and outdated which has been in practice since colonial rule over the sub-continent. Before 2006 to the worse of students at government owned schools important subject like English was introduced at the secondary level or 6th grade and at this stage the students started learning the ABC of English. The revised 2006 English curriculum for the first time introduced English at 1st grade. The new revised English curriculum only focuses on outlining the policy but does not focus on the problems at the heart of the system. The organisation of the curriculum framework reveals that students of primary level have been divided into two categories of I-II and III-V with the aim to develop a solid base for the tender age students in order to develop them into autonomous learners and to develop skills an d understanding to build a foundation for later studies. This policy guideline for the English curriculum also sets different benchmark for different groups of students. For instance the benchmark summarised in table 2.3 at page 11 for grade III-V reveals that the planner of the policy has concentrated more on the grammar. The government while introducing such syllabus overlooks the capabilities of the government schools to enforce such policy. One can understand the level of competency the curriculum plans to achieve for the students for instance one of the competency objective for grade one student is to learn how a student will hold a book, open a book and turn pages of a book correctly (Revised Curriculum, section 3, page 22). The other competency objective for the same group is tantamount to spoon feeding where a student is supposed to tell what comes before and after an alphabet (ibid, page 25). Furthermore on the page 26 of the curriculum the grade-I students are supposed to learn the poem by heart which will help them in developing reading and thinking skills (ibid, page 26). The big question mark is how a student is supposed to memorise something which is new for him without knowing or understanding the meaning and what is the main purpose of that exercise which a grade-I student is going to adopt and does it help towards the aim of developing a student reading and thinking sills. The writing skills of the curricul um (page 27) focuses on how a student will hold a pencil correctly, draw different lines, draw within the lines, trace and copy small and capital letters, write number from 1 to 10, write date, name, phone number etc. The ‘formal and lexical aspect of language’ again diverts the student from English towards local languages which defocus them from their main objective (page 33). These are some of the aspects of the revised English curriculum which reflects the insincerity and lack of dedication to introduce new English teaching techniques and a fresh syllabus based on modern knowledge. The curriculum is seen by most of the critics as a repetitive and ineffective guideline for the teachers and students which will hardly benefit any of the two. The teaching guideline is more inclined towards the traditionalist approach and there is no room for any reform towards adaptation of new techniques being practiced worldwide for teaching English. The curriculum does not work to ame nd the existing practice of teaching where the students are the biggest losers. The curriculum restricts to develop and promote the internal abilities of the student by binding them to follow, adopt and think within limited parameters without any concession to go out of those limits and this in turn leads to lost of confidence and self-learning capabilities. I put the question regarding the new English curriculum to a former senior Professor of English, Mr. Safdar Rana, (at Islamabad Model College for Boys, F-8/4, Islamabad, Pakistan) who is associated with teaching profession for over 30 years, he ridiculed the syllabus and said: â€Å"the syllabus is the same obsolete which I started teaching at primary level in 1967, it is 100 percent the same. The same syllabus includes topic like write the story of ‘greedy dog’, ‘union is strength’, ‘write a letter to father thanking him for buying a pen’, essay of ‘Journey by Bus’ etc is going on and Ministry of education is happy that they are promoting education and in their mind this system is the best in the third world. But actually the current English teaching techniques and the curriculum are not student-friendly and their learning process has stopped as they do not use their abilities and skills but heavily dependent on rote memorisation.† To another question regarding the improvement in English teaching standard, expressing his sorrow, he replied: â€Å"how one can expect improvement in education when not a single government tried to change the system, the teachers are under-educated and ill-equipped to teach the students because they are adopting the old techniques of teaching and an obsolete syllabus left by British before independence; these techniques and syllabus has been rejected by the rest of the world as counter-productive and inefficient but still this is in practice over here. Second how a teacher can teach a crowded class of 80 students, you cannot introduce new system in such circumstances. The government is heedless to the student-teacher problems and this sector has been completely ignored by all political and military government came to power.† To a question that teacher are against new techniques like CLT, he opined: â€Å"as far as I am concerned I will welcome any such change. But the government has never introduced any such scheme or system in the past and it will be wrong to say that teachers are against any such techniques. But it is an upheaval task as it needs long term massive investment in term of finance and human resources and serious and consistent efforts are needed on the part of current and any future governments to train, monitor and supervise up to half million teachers where 70 percent of government schools are located in rural and far flung areas of the country.† As Hindal furthers the argument that the techniques of teaching and learning are fully relied upon the well-organised and effective memorisation of information and procedures, which is part of the text books or lecture notes, and its later recollection in exams (2007). This pattern of teaching and learning techniques is common at all levels of education (Hindal 2007). In this setup the student and teachers are very rarely rewarded for their comprehension and the rewards in exams are completely based on retention and memory (ibid). The main trend in such system is that how much a student is capable of memorising and recalling and the learning or success is not based on learning, understanding or using its capabilities. It is a common concept that those teachers in Pakistan have been successful in a system which rewards accurate recall because comprehension is not valued highly for learners at all level. Reid in 1979 gave this idea that for a change of an approach, new information needs to interact with the long-term existing memory. Reid contends that there is no possibility of change in attitude if there is failure to establish mental relationship. Reid identifies specific kind of circumstances where there is higher probability of interaction and this will include learning situations which are active or in other words the student should be involved with the new material, feelings or experiences. This theory rightly suggests that the English text books and curriculum in Pakistan have failed to develop positive attitudes among learners and teachers towards English language. In third world countries like Pakistan the teacher is deemed as the ‘fount of knowledge’ and not as a facilitator (Liu1998:5). Liu emphasise the needs and significance of a proper teaching methodology in accordance with the cultures of these countries instead of completely depending on the western researchers and approaches for their need as some western techniques are not going to work out for a poor country (Liu1998:4). CONCLUSION The education standard at primary level cannot be improved without complete overhaul and innovation of the existing teaching techniques and curriculum which merely promotes the traditionalist approach sans any hope of development. The traditionalist approach to teaching could be replaced with Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) which is the best alternative to the existing system of education, especially for teaching English as a second language. The introduction of new curriculum is not up to the standard to assist the pupils to engage their natural abilities and skills but it discourage them to be innovative, constructive and confident. The successful student in such system is that who blindly adopts and follows the current education system. The Ministry of Education (MoE) has been following a vicious circle of education policies and strategies for a very long time with this hope that this path will lead to success but by end of day the MoE comes to the same point from where they started in 1947.

The Terror Management Theory Essay -- Psychology, Fear of Death

Many may agree with the old saying that â€Å"beauty is only skin deep,† but does beauty come in a particular shade of color? This question is very debatable for many, but the fact of the matter is that human beings are born in array of skin tones. These differences in skin tone are used to categorize people into different ethnic groups. Lopez proposes thatâ€Å"ethnic identity is a type of group identity that is related to a better outcome because it provides a sense of belonging or cultural embeddedness.†(p.102) Dr. Ronald Hall (2006) suggests that in America minorities or people of color are called black in relative terms to the majority who are of European descent i.e. white. Some studies have discovered that a more â€Å"ethnic appearance† is usually assessed by a darker skin color i.e, black and is associated with a worse outcome in life (Lopez, 2008) In contrast, beauty, wealth and overall appeal are associated with physiological proximity to the white p ower structure i.e., light skin. (Hall, 2006) It appears as though desirable skin complexions are culturally relative. The terror management theory is a motivational theory which speculates that human beings have an underlying fear of death. These feelings are managed within that person by developing or maintaining a two- part cultural anxiety buffer; an individual worldview and a sense of self value or self-esteem. (Pyszczynski,Greenberg, & Solomon, 1997) According to the theory, high self-esteem reflects the successful participation in and internalization of meaningful cultural worldview. (Schmeichel, Gailliot, Filardo, MrGregor, Gitter, &Baumeister 2009) Goldenberg and Shakelford (2005) suggested that â€Å"the need for self-esteem is often seen as the master motive that underlies much o... ...ive. Those who engage themselves in processes such as tanning or skin bleaching do so to help boost their self-esteem. From the perspective of the terror management theory, individuals are motivated to live up to cultural standards because doing so grants self-esteem. The boost in self-esteem acts as a buffer for potential anxiety relative to awareness of personal immortality. (Cox et al., 2009) TMT determines that people aim to live up to social standards in order deal with personal insecurities about dying. If a psychological structure provides protection from thoughts about death, then reminding people of death will increase the need for that structure. (Goldenberg, Pyzszcsynski, Greenberg,Solomon, Kluck, &Cornwall, 2001) Within terms of this study, it is speculated that as mortality salience increases, so does an individual’s need to alter his own skin color.

The Challenges of Lesbian and Gay Youth Essay -- Lesbian Gay Teens Ado

The Challenges of Lesbian and Gay Youth This research paper is missing the works cited â€Å"The unprecedented growth of the gay community in recent history has transformed our culture and consciousness, creating radically new possibilities for people to ‘come out’ and live more openly as homosexuals†(Herdt 2). Before the 1969 Stonewall riot in New York, homosexuality was a taboo subject. Research concerning homosexuality emphasized the etiology, treatment, and psychological adjustment of homosexuals. Times have changed since 1969. Homosexuals have gained great attention in arts, entertainment, media, and politics. Yesterday’s research on homosexuality has expanded to include trying to understand the different experiences and situations of homosexuals (Ben-Ari 89-90). Despite the transition, little consideration has been given to understanding the growing population of gay adolescents. 25% of American families are likely to have a gay child (Hidalgo 24); In the United States, three million adolescents are estimated to be homosexual. Yet, American society still ignores gay adolescents. Majority of children are raised in heterosexual families, taught in heterosexual establishments, and put in heterosexual peer groups. Gay adolescents often feel forced by parents to pass as â€Å"heterosexually normal† (Herdt 2). As a result, homosexual teens hide their sexual orientation and feelings, especially from their parents. Limited research conducted on gay young adults on disclosure to parents generally suggests that disclosure is a time of familial crisis and emotional distress. Very few researchers argue that disclosure to parents results in happiness, bringing parents and children closer (Ben-Ari 90).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The debate over homosexuality as nature or nurture dominates most topics about homosexuality. People often confuse the nature/nurture issue with the development of gay identity. In fact, the nature/nurture argument plays a small, insignificant role concerning gay youths (Walling 11). Homosexual identity is the view of the self as homosexual in association with romantic and sexual situations (Troiden 46) Many researchers have either discussed or created several models or theories concerning the development of homosexual identity. However, the most prominent is Troiden’s sociological four-stage model of homosexual identity formation. Dr. Richard R. Troiden desc... ...Being kicked out from the home is another consequence of rejection by parents (Mallon, Wagon 83). Urban and rural Associate researchers discovered that many young male prostitutes are homosexual, and they are products of their families’ inability to accept their son’s homosexuality (Coleman 136).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It would be wrong to say that only negative outcomes occur when a child tells his parents he is gay. Many children feel that in order to establish an honest relationship with their parents then they must â€Å"come clean† to them. Ben-Ari’s research points out those adolescents who want to be open and honest with their parents receive that after disclosure. Parents are usually accepting after time their child’s sexual preference (107) Conclusion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This paper has effort to generally show youths growing up gay. A number of issues have been presented involving gay identity formation, parental interaction, and disclosure. Homosexuality is a very controversial subject. By no mean does this paper try to say that it is â€Å"totally correct.† However, the paper does examine logical theoretical ideas of what gay adolescents endure, using and combining research and reports of other gay studies.

Media’s Portraits of Guns and Violence Essay

Discuss the connection between the portrayal of guns, violence, and victims and the crime-fighting policies that are implied in these portrayals. What criminal justice policies are encouraged by the above portraits and which ones are discouraged? The media distorts the public’s view of violence, guns, and victims, and helps shape the criminal justice policies by doing so. Their portrayal of guns, violence, and victims is of law enforcement or private citizens fighting a constant war against crime, usually with an overabundance of violence from both the perpetrators and the crime fighters. One example of the violence that the media shows is how many of the crimes committed have guns involved. The media makes it seem like it is easy to get a gun, that all criminals have one, and that all citizens need one for protection. â€Å"Whoever has the biggest gun wins†. Then they show the crime fighter coming after the criminal very aggressively, and they violently battle it out. The more the media sensationalizes gun violence, and keeps it fresh in the viewer’s minds, the more the public will believe it is the biggest problem in crime control, whether it is true or not, and public opinion will lead to many debates over the issue of gun control, and other policies that could lessen violence. These media portrayals make it seem ok for private citizens to take the law into their own hands, even violently, as long as they stop the â€Å"bad guy†. A current media example of this is the television show â€Å"Arrow†. The Arrow would be a rogue, although he was never a cop. Criminal Justice policies that discourage these media portraits are gun buy-back programs stricter gun laws, and harsher sentencing for those caught with unlawful guns.

Zoe’s Tale PART I Chapter Six

â€Å"I don't know how you could possibly be bored,† Savitri said to me, leaning on an observation deck rail as we looked out from Phoenix Station to the Magellan. â€Å"This place is great.† I looked over at her with mock suspicion. â€Å"Who are you, and what have you done with Savitri Guntupalli?† â€Å"I don't know what you mean,† Savitri said, blandly. â€Å"The Savitri I know was sarcastic and bitter,† I said. â€Å"You are all gushy, like a schoolgirl. Therefore: You're not Savitri. You are some horrible spunky camouflaged alien thing, and I hate you.† â€Å"Point of order,† Savitri said. â€Å"You're a schoolgirl, and you hardly ever gush. I've known you for years and I don't believe I have ever seen you involved in a gushing incident. You are almost entirely gush-free.† â€Å"Fine, you gush even more than a schoolgirl,† I said. â€Å"Which just makes it worse. I hope you're happy.† â€Å"I am,† Savitri said. â€Å"Thank you for noticing.† â€Å"Hrrrumph,† I said, rolled my eyes for extra effect, and applied myself to the observation deck rail with renewed moodiness. I was not actually irritated with Savitri. She had an excellent reason to be excited; all her life she'd been on Huckleberry and now, finally, she was somewhere else: on Phoenix Station, the space station, the largest single thing humans had ever built, hovering above Phoenix, the home planet of the entire Colonial Union. For as long as I had known her – which was for as long as she had been my dad's assistant, back in New Goa, on Huckleberry – Savitri had cultivated an air of general smart-assery, which is one reason I adored her and looked up to her. One has to have role models, you know. But after we had lifted from Huckleberry her excitement from finally getting to see more of the universe had gotten to her. She'd been unguardedly excited about everything; she even got up early to watch the Magellan, the ship that would take us to Roanoke, dock with Phoenix Station. I was happy for her that she was so excited about everything, and I mocked her mercilessly for it every chance I got. One day, yes, there would be payback – Savitri taught me much of what I know about being a smartass, but not everything she knew about it – but until then it was one of the few things keeping me entertained. Listen: Phoenix Station is huge, it's busy, and unless you have an actual job – or like Savitri are just in from the sticks – there is nothing going on. It's not an amusement park, it's just a big dull combination of government offices, docks and military headquarters, all jammed into space. If it weren't for the fact that stepping outside to get some fresh air would kill you – no fresh air, just lung-popping vacuum – it could be any big, faceless, dead-boring civic center anywhere humans come together to do big, faceless, dead-boring civic things. It is not designed for fun, or at least any sort of fun I was interested in having. I suppose I could have filed something. That would have been a kick. Savitri, in addition to being insensibly excited not to be on Huckleberry, was also being worked like a dog by John and Jane: The three of them had spent nearly all their time since we arrived at Phoenix Station getting up to speed on Roanoke, learning about the colonists who would be with us, and overseeing the loading of supplies and equipment onto the Magellan. This didn't come as news to me, but it did leave me with not a whole lot to do, and no one much to do it with. I couldn't even do much with Hickory, Dickory, or Babar; Dad told Hickory and Dickory to lay low while we were on Phoenix Station, and dogs weren't really allowed the run of the station. We had to lay out paper towels for Babar to do his thing on. The first night I did this and tried to get him to take care of business, he gave me a look that said you have got to be kidding. Sorry, buddy. Now pee, damn it. The only reason I was getting some time with Savitri at all was that through a clever combination of whining and guilt I had convinced her to take her lunch break with me. Even then she had brought her PDA and spent half of lunch going over manifests. She was even excited about that. I told her I thought she might be ill. â€Å"I'm sorry you're bored,† Savitri said, back in the present. â€Å"You might want to hint to your parents.† â€Å"Trust me, I did,† I said. â€Å"Dad actually stepped up, too. He said he's going to take me down to Phoenix. Do some last-minute shopping and other things.† The other things were the main reason for us to go, but I didn't want to bring them up to Savitri; I was moody enough as it was. â€Å"You haven't come across any other colonists your own age yet?† Savitri asked. I shrugged. â€Å"I've seen some of them.† â€Å"But you haven't spoken to any of them,† Savitri said. â€Å"Not really,† I said. â€Å"Because you're shy,† Savitri said. â€Å"Now your sarcasm comes back,† I said. â€Å"I'm sympathetic to your boredom,† Savitri said. â€Å"But less so if you're just marinating in it.† She looked around at the observation desk, which had a few other people in it, sitting or reading or staring out at the ships docked at the station. â€Å"What about her?† she said, pointing to a girl who looked about my age, who was looking out the deck window. I glanced over. â€Å"What about her?† I said. â€Å"She looks about as bored as you,† Savitri said. â€Å"Appearances can be deceiving,† I said. â€Å"Let's check,† Savitri said, and before I could stop her called to the other girl. â€Å"Hey,† Savitri said. â€Å"Yes?† the girl said. â€Å"My friend here thinks she's the most bored teenage girl on the entire station,† Savitri said, pointing at me. I had nowhere to cringe. â€Å"I was wondering if you had anything to say about that.† â€Å"Well,† the girl said, after a minute. â€Å"I don't want to brag, but the quality of my boredom is outstanding.† â€Å"Oh, I like her,† Savitri said to me, and then waved the girl over. â€Å"This is Zoe,† she said, introducing me. â€Å"I can talk,† I said to Savitri. â€Å"Gretchen,† she said, extending her hand to me. â€Å"Hello,† I said, taking it. â€Å"I'm interested in your boredom and would like to hear more,† Gretchen said. Okay, I thought. I like her too. Savitri smiled. â€Å"Well, since you two seem to be equally matched, I have to go,† she said. â€Å"There are containers of soil conditioners that need my attention.† She gave me a peck, waved to Gretchen, and left. â€Å"Soil conditioners?† Gretchen said to me, after she had gone. â€Å"It's a long story,† I said. â€Å"I've got nothing but time,† Gretchen said. â€Å"Savitri is the assistant to my parents, who are heading up a new colony,† I said, and pointed to the Magellan. â€Å"That's the ship we're going on. One of Savitri's jobs is to make sure that everything that's on the manifest list actually gets put on the ship. I guess she's up to soil conditioners.† â€Å"Your parents are John Perry and Jane Sagan,† Gretchen said. I stared at her for a minute. â€Å"Yeah,† I said. â€Å"How do you know?† â€Å"Because my dad talks about them a lot,† she said, and motioned toward the Magellan. â€Å"This colony your parents are leading? It was his idea. He was Erie's representative on the CU legislature, and for years he argued that people from established colonies should be able to colonize, not just people from Earth. Finally the Department of Colonization agreed with him – and then it gave the leadership of the colony to your parents instead of him. They told my dad it was a political compromise.† â€Å"What did your dad think about that?† I asked. â€Å"Well, I just met you,† Gretchen said. â€Å"I don't know what sort of language you can handle.† â€Å"Oh. Well, that's not good,† I said. â€Å"I don't think he hates your parents,† Gretchen said, quickly. â€Å"It's not like that. He just assumed that after everything he did, he'd get to lead the colony. ‘Disappointment' doesn't even begin to cover it. Although I wouldn't say he likes your parents, either. He got a file on them when they were appointed and then spent the day muttering to himself as he read it.† â€Å"I'm sorry he's disappointed,† I said. In my head I was wondering if I needed to write Gretchen off as a possible friend; one of those stupid â€Å"our houses are at war† scenarios. The first person my age I meet, going to Roanoke, and we were already in different camps. But then she said, â€Å"Yeah, well. At a certain point he got a little stupid about it. He was comparing himself to Moses, like, Oh, I've led my people to the promised land but I can't enter myself† – and here she made little hand movements to accentuate the point – â€Å"and that's when I decided he was overreacting. Because we're going, you know. And he's on your parents' advisory council. So I told him to suck it up.† I blinked. â€Å"You actually used those words?† I said. â€Å"Well, no,† Gretchen said. â€Å"What I actually said was I wondered if I kicked a puppy if it would whine more than he did.† She shrugged. â€Å"What can I say. Sometimes he needs to get over himself.† â€Å"You and I are so totally going to be best friends,† I said. â€Å"Are we?† she said, and grinned at me. â€Å"I don't know. What are the hours?† â€Å"The hours are terrible,† I said. â€Å"And the pay is even worse.† â€Å"Will I be treated horribly?† she asked. â€Å"You will cry yourself to sleep on a nightly basis,† I said. â€Å"Fed crusts?† she asked. â€Å"Of course not,† I said. â€Å"We feed the crusts to the dogs.† â€Å"Oh, very nice,† she said. â€Å"Okay, you pass. We can be best friends.† â€Å"Good,† I said. â€Å"Another life decision taken care of.† â€Å"Yes,† she said, and then moved away from the rail. â€Å"Now, come on. No point wasting all this attitude on ourselves. Let's go find something to point and laugh at.† Phoenix Station was a lot more interesting after that.

Review of literature

Grand Canyon University Epidemiology and Communicable Diseases MRS.-IV Sandra White July 3, 2014 Epidemiology Hepatitis B We have come far in healthcare and everyday we get closer to solutions and can succeed in the understanding of disease processes unknown and foreign to us. We have been challenged many times by the illnesses that have taken so many lives but never in vain as when this unfortunate event has happened we have been able to get closer to a solution.The many diseases that have been a main factor in causing death are many however; we have come far in the vaccination process and treatments. In this paper we will focus on Hepatitis B. The virus that has been around for many years and was unknown to mankind until it became a global issues, causing scientists from all over the world to assess, evaluate and then research for a vaccination against this virus, in the 1965 by DRP Plumber however, it was licensed in the unites states in 1981 to be used as it showed a 90 or greate r % chance of treatment (â€Å"Hepatitis B foundation,† 2014).Writing about hepatitis B and talking about, people will understand that it is a virus which they should get vaccinated for or have their children vaccinated however, what truly is Hepatitis B and what does it do? Continuing on this important subject this writer will start off by explaining where this virus was discovered and where it could have manifested. We will also discuss the symptoms, treatment and environmental factors contributing to the disease. Including the nurses' role in the system. What can a health care worker contribute and teach the community?Hepatitis B (HUB) affects the liver of the infected person. It in turn causes scaring of he liver, liver diseases, death and liver cancer (CDC, 2014). The way a person can get infected in the first place varies. Many times one could get infected by blood ; open sores, sharing needles, unprotected intercourse and any other way of transferring blood from an exp osed person to an unexposed person. The infection is not such as HIVE, meaning you get infected once and then you raise immunity towards it and will not be exposed or get infected again.This also varies as some, will not get rid of the infection. If this occurs, where someone has been infected for more than six months hey will be considered a carrier and can easily without any sign and symptoms of infection, infect others. The symptoms vary from person to person however the main symptoms and side effects include and are not limited to, fever, Jaundice, abdominal pain, unexplained fatigue and unusual light colored stools, causing extreme gastrointestinal dysfunctions and pain (â€Å"Hepatitis B foundation,† 2014).A damaged liver caused by the HUB can be detrimental. The liver is an organ we can not survive without, it is as it would be an engine, cleaning the system; clearing the load of waste products, drugs, making clotting factors to stop excessive bleeding after cuts and i njuries. It also produces immune factors and will remove bacteria from the blood. Furthermore, it also releases bile to help digest food and absorb many nutrients needed (â€Å"Hepatitis B foundation,† 2014). HUB can cause liver cancer and if not treated immediately, it can be detrimental to the affected person.It is important to have a liver biopsy in this case and move forward with appropriate treatment such as any surgical removal of tumor or targeted liver chemotherapy. Treating and preventing this disease is mainly and most focused on certain age groups. It in this case has a demographic interest approach. Per the Hepatitis B Foundation, they report that the â€Å"risk of developing a chronic hepatitis infection is directly related to the age at which one becomes infected with the virus (â€Å"Hepatitis B foundation,† 2014).Per the Centers for disease control and prevention they report that the highest rated infected populations are infants with infected mothers, health care workers, intercourse between men, population who share needles between hem when using illicit drugs and any contact between infected and uninfected person. They continue to report that there is no acute treatment for an acute infection and that treatment is supportive, as many may also not have clear symptoms at first. Furthermore, per the world health organization, they report â€Å"more than 780 000 people die every year† form HUB in the world (WHO, 2014).The geographical distribution is such that the highest rate presents in the sub Sahara Africa and East Asia. We must understand that these are poor unprivileged areas in the world and cost likely and many times do not have enough access to education, vaccines or treatment. The world organization of health reports that most of these people in these areas are infected as children and 5-10 % of adults become chronically infected with HUB however, in general it is reported by WHO as well that 15-25% of adults who become chronically infected during childhood die from hepatitis B- related liver cancer or cirrhosis. WHO, 2014). Again, the vaccine has been available for everyone since 1982 shortly after it was discovered in 1965. It has shown and proven to decrease the infection by 95% (CDC, 2014). However, funding and availability of transport and financial support is lacking to spread the vaccination to these regions and could, unfortunately take many more lives before a solution can be reached and adding that â€Å"HUB and HCI infections account for the majority of cirrhosis and primary liver cancer throughout most of the world† (Peer,J. F. , Armstrong, G. L, 2006).Further discussing the HUB this writer will contrast it towards the epidemiology triangle, which was founded and created by researchers to better understand and solve health problems including viruses and infections. By researching around the epidemiology triangle for Hepatitis B we can understand that there is an agent, whi ch in this case would be the HUB (virus), which, then will infect the host (a human). Vertex number three is the environmental factor researches pertain to as â€Å"where†, the condition of the host, the outside factors causing the agent to reside on host and infect it.For hepatitis B we have confirmed that all the factors exist. The agent (HUB) will enter the host whom would be the human blood cells, in other words, HUB infection is caused by the virus which will penetrate in to the cell and release its gnome into it. As we will not go into the details of the viral life cycle but including that per the Journal by Lu X and Block Timothy, in their research, † Study of early steps of hepatitis B life cycle† they report that the virus will infect its host by three stages called; attachment, fusion and entry.The research is still ongoing on the specifics of the complete cycle of the HUB (Lu & Block, 2004). The environmental factor includes dried blood on surfaces, whi ch is infected, and if another person will have contact with it. Another environmental situation can be the needles found on streets seed by drug users whom can have been infected as well. When healthcare workers work with blood pathogens and areas where they could easily be exposed it is important for them to be vaccinated before hand as this environmental factor could have a deadly turn out.So what is the role of the community nurse in this case and in regards to hepatitis B? As nurses are to advocate for their community it is also a responsibility for some to step up in their role and collect data and analyze the case findings within the community. In this regard it is important and in many cases also a requirement for a ruse to obtain a baccalaureate degree in nursing and to then establish partnership and collaboration with public health professionals.It is important for the public health nurse to involve the community and their awareness on public safety, vaccination and preven tion of diseases. Some ways a public health nurse can participate is to help clinics control communicable diseases, educate and participate in environmental sanitation, health education including schools as well. To control and manage results, increase or decrease of disease within the community, a nurse could for example collect data by questionnaires.Another way would be to collaborate with laboratories by collecting data and assessing the results Furthermore, nurses should follow up with every patient who might have been infected or could be at risk for infection by doing home calls or call patients back to assess results and contribute further in education. There are many national agencies one can choose to seek further information from or refer a client too; one of them is the center for disease control and prevention. Another major agency is the world health organization, which also covers on an international level.Another online site that can be viewed is Hepatitis B foundati on with tremendous amount of information and the latest updates on research. For the serving and veterans the VA has many resources as well that can be visited. As the information has become vast and with new technology discovered, we are get a little closer to a wider solution and treatment including prevention. There are still many vast majorities of regions that are in need of proper education and preventive care such as vaccines however, with the appropriate funding and health care providers this goal can also be reached. Review of literature Grand Canyon University Epidemiology and Communicable Diseases MRS.-IV Sandra White July 3, 2014 Epidemiology Hepatitis B We have come far in healthcare and everyday we get closer to solutions and can succeed in the understanding of disease processes unknown and foreign to us. We have been challenged many times by the illnesses that have taken so many lives but never in vain as when this unfortunate event has happened we have been able to get closer to a solution.The many diseases that have been a main factor in causing death are many however; we have come far in the vaccination process and treatments. In this paper we will focus on Hepatitis B. The virus that has been around for many years and was unknown to mankind until it became a global issues, causing scientists from all over the world to assess, evaluate and then research for a vaccination against this virus, in the 1965 by DRP Plumber however, it was licensed in the unites states in 1981 to be used as it showed a 90 or greate r % chance of treatment (â€Å"Hepatitis B foundation,† 2014).Writing about hepatitis B and talking about, people will understand that it is a virus which they should get vaccinated for or have their children vaccinated however, what truly is Hepatitis B and what does it do? Continuing on this important subject this writer will start off by explaining where this virus was discovered and where it could have manifested. We will also discuss the symptoms, treatment and environmental factors contributing to the disease. Including the nurses' role in the system. What can a health care worker contribute and teach the community?Hepatitis B (HUB) affects the liver of the infected person. It in turn causes scaring of he liver, liver diseases, death and liver cancer (CDC, 2014). The way a person can get infected in the first place varies. Many times one could get infected by blood ; open sores, sharing needles, unprotected intercourse and any other way of transferring blood from an exp osed person to an unexposed person. The infection is not such as HIVE, meaning you get infected once and then you raise immunity towards it and will not be exposed or get infected again.This also varies as some, will not get rid of the infection. If this occurs, where someone has been infected for more than six months hey will be considered a carrier and can easily without any sign and symptoms of infection, infect others. The symptoms vary from person to person however the main symptoms and side effects include and are not limited to, fever, Jaundice, abdominal pain, unexplained fatigue and unusual light colored stools, causing extreme gastrointestinal dysfunctions and pain (â€Å"Hepatitis B foundation,† 2014).A damaged liver caused by the HUB can be detrimental. The liver is an organ we can not survive without, it is as it would be an engine, cleaning the system; clearing the load of waste products, drugs, making clotting factors to stop excessive bleeding after cuts and i njuries. It also produces immune factors and will remove bacteria from the blood. Furthermore, it also releases bile to help digest food and absorb many nutrients needed (â€Å"Hepatitis B foundation,† 2014). HUB can cause liver cancer and if not treated immediately, it can be detrimental to the affected person.It is important to have a liver biopsy in this case and move forward with appropriate treatment such as any surgical removal of tumor or targeted liver chemotherapy. Treating and preventing this disease is mainly and most focused on certain age groups. It in this case has a demographic interest approach. Per the Hepatitis B Foundation, they report that the â€Å"risk of developing a chronic hepatitis infection is directly related to the age at which one becomes infected with the virus (â€Å"Hepatitis B foundation,† 2014).Per the Centers for disease control and prevention they report that the highest rated infected populations are infants with infected mothers, health care workers, intercourse between men, population who share needles between hem when using illicit drugs and any contact between infected and uninfected person. They continue to report that there is no acute treatment for an acute infection and that treatment is supportive, as many may also not have clear symptoms at first. Furthermore, per the world health organization, they report â€Å"more than 780 000 people die every year† form HUB in the world (WHO, 2014).The geographical distribution is such that the highest rate presents in the sub Sahara Africa and East Asia. We must understand that these are poor unprivileged areas in the world and cost likely and many times do not have enough access to education, vaccines or treatment. The world organization of health reports that most of these people in these areas are infected as children and 5-10 % of adults become chronically infected with HUB however, in general it is reported by WHO as well that 15-25% of adults who become chronically infected during childhood die from hepatitis B- related liver cancer or cirrhosis. WHO, 2014). Again, the vaccine has been available for everyone since 1982 shortly after it was discovered in 1965. It has shown and proven to decrease the infection by 95% (CDC, 2014). However, funding and availability of transport and financial support is lacking to spread the vaccination to these regions and could, unfortunately take many more lives before a solution can be reached and adding that â€Å"HUB and HCI infections account for the majority of cirrhosis and primary liver cancer throughout most of the world† (Peer,J. F. , Armstrong, G. L, 2006).Further discussing the HUB this writer will contrast it towards the epidemiology triangle, which was founded and created by researchers to better understand and solve health problems including viruses and infections. By researching around the epidemiology triangle for Hepatitis B we can understand that there is an agent, whi ch in this case would be the HUB (virus), which, then will infect the host (a human). Vertex number three is the environmental factor researches pertain to as â€Å"where†, the condition of the host, the outside factors causing the agent to reside on host and infect it.For hepatitis B we have confirmed that all the factors exist. The agent (HUB) will enter the host whom would be the human blood cells, in other words, HUB infection is caused by the virus which will penetrate in to the cell and release its gnome into it. As we will not go into the details of the viral life cycle but including that per the Journal by Lu X and Block Timothy, in their research, † Study of early steps of hepatitis B life cycle† they report that the virus will infect its host by three stages called; attachment, fusion and entry.The research is still ongoing on the specifics of the complete cycle of the HUB (Lu & Block, 2004). The environmental factor includes dried blood on surfaces, whi ch is infected, and if another person will have contact with it. Another environmental situation can be the needles found on streets seed by drug users whom can have been infected as well. When healthcare workers work with blood pathogens and areas where they could easily be exposed it is important for them to be vaccinated before hand as this environmental factor could have a deadly turn out.So what is the role of the community nurse in this case and in regards to hepatitis B? As nurses are to advocate for their community it is also a responsibility for some to step up in their role and collect data and analyze the case findings within the community. In this regard it is important and in many cases also a requirement for a ruse to obtain a baccalaureate degree in nursing and to then establish partnership and collaboration with public health professionals.It is important for the public health nurse to involve the community and their awareness on public safety, vaccination and preven tion of diseases. Some ways a public health nurse can participate is to help clinics control communicable diseases, educate and participate in environmental sanitation, health education including schools as well. To control and manage results, increase or decrease of disease within the community, a nurse could for example collect data by questionnaires.Another way would be to collaborate with laboratories by collecting data and assessing the results Furthermore, nurses should follow up with every patient who might have been infected or could be at risk for infection by doing home calls or call patients back to assess results and contribute further in education. There are many national agencies one can choose to seek further information from or refer a client too; one of them is the center for disease control and prevention. Another major agency is the world health organization, which also covers on an international level.Another online site that can be viewed is Hepatitis B foundati on with tremendous amount of information and the latest updates on research. For the serving and veterans the VA has many resources as well that can be visited. As the information has become vast and with new technology discovered, we are get a little closer to a wider solution and treatment including prevention. There are still many vast majorities of regions that are in need of proper education and preventive care such as vaccines however, with the appropriate funding and health care providers this goal can also be reached.